Did Jesus die on a cross?

Crucifixion: what do the Qur'an and the Bible say?

« Was Jesus crucified?

The question of whether Jesus died on a cross is closely connected to his claims about himself. Who was he? And what did he consider to be his primary mission?

Christian Perspective

Jesus is the Messiah, the King of the Jews

The gospel of Luke is the third of the Bible’s four biographies of Jesus.{3} It’s based on the testimony of Luke, a doctor from Antioch and close companion of the 12 disciples.{4} Luke carefully researched eyewitness testimony about what happened, and describes how he met with many people who knew Jesus and witnessed his ministry.

Early in his gospel account, Luke describes a moment at the beginning of Jesus’ ministry:

He went to Nazareth, where he had been brought up, and on the Sabbath day he went into the synagogue, as was his custom. He stood up to read, and the scroll of the prophet Isaiah was handed to him. Unrolling it, he found the place where it is written:

“The Spirit of the Lord is on me,
because he has anointed me
to proclaim good news to the poor.
He has sent me to proclaim freedom for the prisoners
and recovery of sight for the blind,
to set the oppressed free,
to proclaim the year of the Lord’s favour.”

Then he rolled up the scroll, gave it back to the attendant and sat down. The eyes of everyone in the synagogue were fastened on him. He began by saying to them,

“Today this scripture is fulfilled in your hearing.” {5}

Hundreds of years before Jesus, the Torah, Psalms and Prophets had spoken about God’s promised Messiah. He would be pure and mighty, with unparalleled authority to rescue his people from sin. He would heal, establish God’s kingdom and subdue God’s enemy. In some places, descriptions of this Messiah even resembled God himself.{6} People were excited when rumours began to circulate: the Messiah had finally arrived!{7}

So Jesus’ comment about scripture being fulfilled was provocative. Why?

  1. Jesus announced the arrival of God’s promised king, the Messiah,{8} the ‘Anointed One’
  2. Jesus was claiming himself to be fulfilment of Isaiah’s prophecy, the Messiah{9}

John the Baptist (Yahya) asked Jesus, “Are you the one who is to come, or should we expect someone else?” Jesus replied by pointing to his amazing ministry: “The blind receive sight … the dead are raised, and the good news is proclaimed to the poor.”{10} This was what was expected of the Messiah. He would not only rule as a king; he would perform miracles. The High Priest, Caiaphas, asked Jesus bluntly: “Are you the Messiah, the Son of the Blessed One?” Jesus replied, “I am.”{11}

Jesus claimed the kingdom of God had arrived with his ministry:

“The time has come. The kingdom of God has come near. Repent and believe the good news!”{12} Jesus did not simply claim to be a messenger of God’s kingdom, he claimed to be the king of that kingdom. John the Baptist recognised Jesus’ unique authority, and said of him, “I am not worthy to untie his sandals.”{13}

But what was so special about this Messiah? And what was he supposed to accomplish?

Jesus claimed authority to forgive sins

On many occasions, Jesus claimed to forgive sins by his own authority.{14} The devout Jews who heard him found this blasphemous. After all, by forgiving people’s sins, Jesus was claiming an authority which devout Jews knew was unique to God himself: “Why does this fellow talk like that? He’s blaspheming! Who can forgive sins but God alone?”{15}

Immediately Jesus knew in his spirit that this was what they were thinking in their hearts, and he said to them … “I want you to know that the Son of Man has authority on earth to forgive sins.”{16}

Jesus did not merely claim the authority to forgive sins; he demonstrated it. He healed people’s bodily and spiritual needs.

In other ways, too, Jesus made claims to authority which belonged to God alone. Jesus claimed:{17}

  1. Unique relationship with the Father, God
  2. Authority over the Torah, fulfilling it and bringing new revelation
  3. Authority over the natural world
  4. Authority over angelic beings
  5. He had lived forever, before creation itself
  6. A right to be worshipped
  7. God’s name, ‘I AM,’ by which He spoke to Moses
  8. Authority over the Day of Judgment

It is no wonder Jesus offended the Jewish religious rulers, the Pharisees and teachers of the Law. They feared his influence and hated his claims about himself. It was not long before ‘they conspired to arrest Jesus covertly and kill him’.{18}

Jesus was killed, by crucifixion

During his ministry, Jesus claimed he would ‘give his life as a ransom for many’.{19} This was not a new teaching. Centuries before, the Prophet Isaiah foretold how the Messiah’s death would pay the price to free God’s people.{20} Now, Jesus claimed, this prophecy was coming to pass:

“We are going up to Jerusalem,” he said, “and the Son of Man will be delivered over to the chief priests and the teachers of the Law. They will condemn him to death and will hand him over to the Gentiles, who will mock him and spit on him, flog him and kill him. Three days later he will rise.”{21}

This is precisely what happened to Jesus.{22}

After a hasty overnight arrest and sentencing, Jesus was sentenced to be crucified. On the day of his crucifixion, around 9am (‘the third hour’ in the Jewish calendar), Jesus was led to a place known as Golgotha, crucified between two thieves, and watched by a crowd of spectators. By 3pm (‘the ninth hour’), Roman soldiers checked and confirmed that Jesus was dead. Shortly after, his body was taken down for burial and placed in the tomb of a wealthy sympathiser, Joseph of Arimathea. The Jewish Sanhedrin authorities knew the location of the tomb, and placed a Temple guard at its entrance.

Islamic Perspective

Jesus is the Messiah, a messenger of Allah

The Qur’an includes several revelations identifying Jesus as the Messiah (al Masih) and the messenger of Allah. In Sura 4 [An Nisa’] it is written,

The Messiah, Jesus son of Mary, was only a messenger of Allah, and His word which He conveyed unto Mary, and a spirit from Him…{23}

Jesus is only a messenger. Although he performed many miracles, this did not make him the Son of God. Like the prophets before him, Jesus performs miracles only by Allah’s leave. Yet this is no small thing. Jesus is honoured as one of the greatest prophets of Islam.

Sura 3 of the Qur’an, Al Imran, describes several remarkable facts about Jesus:

(And remember) when the angels said: O Mary! Allah gives you glad tidings of a word from him, whose name is the Messiah, Jesus, son of Mary, illustrious in the world and the Hereafter, and one of those brought near (to Allah). He will speak unto mankind in his cradle and in his manhood, and he is of the righteous. She said: My Lord! How can I have a child when no mortal has touched me? He said: So (it will be). Allah creates what He will. If He decrees a thing, He says to it only: Be! and it is. And He will teach him the Scripture and wisdom, and the Torah and the Gospel, And will make him a messenger to the Children of Israel, (saying): Lo! I come unto you with a sign from your Lord. I fashion for you out of clay the likeness of a bird, and I breathe into it and it is a bird, by Allah’s permission. I heal him who was born blind, and the leper, and I raise the dead, by Allah’s permission. And I announce to you what you eat and what you store up in your houses. In this verily is a sign for you, if you are to be believers.{24}

This revelation demonstrates many reasons to respect Jesus as one of the great prophets of Islam:

  • He is a Word from Allah{25}
  • He is born miraculously of the virgin Mary (Mariam)
  • He is honoured in this world and the next
  • He is brought near to Allah
  • He is a miracle worker, in childhood and adulthood
  • He is a Messenger to the Children of Israel
  • He brings signs from Allah
  • He heals the sick and raises the dead
  • He will come again to bring Allah’s judgment on the earth

In addition, Jesus is unique among human beings because he was pure and without sin from the moment of his birth. In the Qur’an, this is how the angel Gabriel (Jibril) describes Jesus at the announcement of his virgin birth:

He said: I am only a messenger of your Lord, that I may bestow on you a faultless son.{26}

In what sense is Jesus without sin? The authentic (sahih) hadith of al-Bukhari provides an explanation regarding the meaning of Jesus’ unique innocence:

The Prophet said, “When any human being is born Satan touches him at both sides of the body with his two fingers, except Jesus, the son of Mary, whom Satan tried to touch but failed, for he touched the placenta-cover instead.”{27}

Because Jesus was born a pure human being, and remained pure, he is all the more special and honoured among the prophets of Allah.

Jesus claimed the authority of a great prophet

Jesus (`Isa) is indeed the Messiah (al Masih), a messenger from Allah. But what does it mean to call Jesus the Messiah? The tafsir of Ibn Kathir explains:

Isa [Jesus] was called “Al-Masih” (the Messiah) because when he touched (Mash) those afflicted with an illness, they would be healed by Allah’s leave.{28}{29}

As we can see, Jesus’ title as ‘the Messiah’ is a reference to the healings he accomplished. But these healings are not accomplished on his own: they are all performed by Allah’s permission. Allah enabled him to perform signs for the people – even to raise the dead.

According to the Qur’an, Jesus came to preach the message of Islam to the Children of Israel. But his ministry would not end there. He appointed disciples, helpers to assist in his important ministry, and they were given victory by Allah’s leave to become uppermost in their ministry, until the day of his return.

O you who believe! Be Allah’s helpers, even as Jesus son of Mary said to the disciples: Who are my helpers for Allah? They said: We are Allah’s helpers. And a party of the Children of Israel believed, while a party disbelieved. Then We strengthened those who believed against their enemy, and they became the uppermost.{30}

Jesus was not killed, nor was he crucified

The Qur’an is usually held to deny categorically that Jesus was crucified. In Quran 4.157-158, this point is addressed directly:

And because of their saying: We slew the Messiah, Jesus son of Mary, Allah’s messenger - they slew him not nor crucified him, but it appeared so to them; and those who disagree concerning it are in doubt of it; they have no knowledge of it except pursuit of a conjecture; they slew him not for certain. But Allah took him up to Himself. Allah was ever Mighty, Wise.{31}

In this short passage, a number of important counter-claims are made about Jesus’ apparent crucifixion:

  • Jesus’ enemies, the Jews, were boasting of having slain him, and believed they had done so
  • They did not kill him
  • They did not crucify him
  • Jesus only appeared to have been killed
  • In reality, Allah took Jesus up to Paradise

The Qur’an clearly states that Jewish and Christian accounts of Jesus’ crucifixion are confused and unreliable. These accounts amount only to conjecture – speculative disputations about what really happened. According to the Qur’an, they are not based on real evidence or revelation.{32}

A conventional reading of the Qur’an establishes that the ‘crucifixion’ of Jesus was only an illusion. Though some were convinced of Jesus’ crucifixion, their convictions were misguided. After all, Allah is powerful to protect his messengers, so Jesus was saved from his enemies before they could harm him. In his tafsir commenting on these events, Ibn Abbas writes,

(But Allah took him up unto Himself) in heaven. (Allah was ever Mighty) in His vengeance against His enemies, (Wise) by granting triumph to his friends: He saved His Prophet and destroyed their man.{33}

The implication is clear. Jesus’ enemies wanted him dead, but Allah undermined their plans, destroyed one of their own, and saved Jesus so he did not die on the cross.

Comparison

Did Jesus die on a cross? This question relates to our faith and theology, and the way we look at Jesus and our own lives. But it’s also a historical question. To determine what really happened, we need to consider the historical evidence.

Like a crime scene investigator, we must ask:

  • Who were the first witnesses (eyewitness accounts)
  • The independence and agreement of witnesses (multiple attestation)
  • The reliability of the early witnesses (authorial intent)
  • The ‘warts and all’ honesty of their account (criterion of embarrassment)
  • What archaeology shows us (archaeological evidence)
  • What historians agree on (scholarly consensus)

THE BIBLE: Jesus was crucified for blasphemy under Pontius Pilate.

Eyewitnesses

Jesus’ first disciples and followers gave clear eyewitness accounts of his crucifixion, burial and resurrection.{34} They named multiple eyewitnesses – and entire communities – which had witnessed Jesus death and resurrection. The earliest testimonies of Jesus bear witness to these events.{35}

Out-group support

First century witnesses of Jesus’ crucifixion under Pontius Pilate were not just Christians. They include Jewish and pagan figures who opposed the Christian community.{36} Today, most scholars of antiquity overwhelmingly agree, ‘there is not the slightest doubt about the fact of Jesus’ crucifixion under Pontius Pilate’.{37}

Consistent, embarrassing testimony

Jesus’ first disciples proclaimed him as a crucified Messiah. But why? This claim did not bring them honour, wealth or power, but rather, ridicule and danger. Many early Christians, like Peter and James, were killed for refusing to deny their testimony.{38} There is no reason to conclude they were lying about what they witnessed. They do not present themselves as heroes{39}, and the evidence suggests that they truly believed they had witnessed Jesus, crucified and resurrected.

Plenty of archaeological and historical evidence

Outside the Bible, artefacts, manuscripts and the historical record confirm the credibility of the Bible’s claim that Jesus was crucified.{40} The gospel writers proclaiming ‘Christ crucified’ provide detailed and accurate descriptions of first-century society.

Artefacts supporting the crucifixion (see footnote 40).

THE QUR’AN: Jesus escaped death, with Allah’s help

No eyewitnesses

The Basilidian gnostics, a heretical sect, were the first to suggest Jesus escaped the cross.{41} Their claim emerged after 130AD – a century after Jesus was sentenced. The Qur’an’s later account of Jesus escaping the cross did not emerge for over 600 years. Unless we are already committed to the idea that the Qur’an is perfect (Quran 98.1-3), there is no obvious reason to believe these traditions over the eyewitness accounts of the New Testament.

Lacks out-group support

No first-century witnesses suggest that Jesus escaped the cross. Second century Christian teachers immediately rejected the gnostic claim that Jesus was not crucified, which was at odds with the earliest eyewitnesses. Today, scholars of antiquity overwhelmingly reject the idea that Jesus escaped or survived the cross.{42}

Inconsistent, motivated testimony

Basilidians rejected Jesus’ crucifixion because they saw him as a god, without a physical body.{43} But Muslims considered Jesus a mortal prophet, with a physical body. They rejected Jesus’ crucifixion because it seemed incompatible with his status as as a prophet under Allah’s protection. Both of these claims are theologically motivated.

Second century gnostic groups, like the Basilidians, are not credible sources. Despite contradicting the testimony of the twelve apostles, they falsely attached the apostles’ names to their works long after these eyewitnesses had died (e.g. the Gospel of Peter). Similarly, the Qur’an’s credibility regarding Jesus’ crucifixion is weakened because it cannot establish credible links to the testimony of Jesus’ twelve apostles.

No archaeological or historical evidence

The historical record provides no evidence to support the idea that Jesus escaped crucifixion, or was substituted. The gnostic and Islamic accounts promoting this theory fail to provide details, and they show a misunderstanding of first-century society.{44}

Was Jesus a prophet of Islam?

The Qur’an and other Islamic sources claim Jesus’ primary mission was to promote Islam. It’s said his disciples were willing missionaries of Islamic monotheism, appointed by God ‘to call the Greeks and the Israelites to Islam’,{45} and set apart for success until Judgment Day.{46} But this claim finds no support in pre-Islamic writings, the archaeological record or the practices of the early church.

The earliest accounts of Jesus present him as the divine, crucified Son of God, a high priest offering sacrifice{47}, and the true Messiah king – not only for Israel, but for all people.{48} Muslims may conclude that Jesus’ early witnesses were wilful or accidental deceivers, and that Allah allowed for the immediate corruption, or loss, of Jesus’ message. Yet this would contradict the Qur’an, and its presentation of the disciples as successful until the day of Jesus’ return.{49}

Questions to consider

  • Why did Jesus’ enemies want to crucify him?
  • Were Jesus and his disciples messengers of Islam? If so, how successful were they?
  • If Jesus’ first disciples were themselves deceived, who deceived them?
  • If Allah substituted another in Jesus’ place, why was it justified to torture this person?
  • What historical evidence is there for the Qur’an’s version of events?

Was Jesus substituted? »